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Figure 3. Diverse active components of Akk exert regulatory effects on intestinal-related diseases through distinct mechanisms. These
findings offer insights into the potential use of these components as therapeutic agents in the clinical treatment of gastrointestinal
disorders. Created with BioRender.com. Akk: Akkermansia muciniphila.

includes 3 IBS patients . The above studies suggest the potential beneficial effects of Akk in IBS, but they
[50]
are mostly association studies. There are limited studies using Akk to directly interfere with human or
animal models to explore its role in IBS. Furthermore, whether Akk plays a harmful role in IBS in different
models and the effects of Akk components in IBS are not fully understood, which warrants further
exploration in the future.

Akk and other intestinal-related diseases
Akk and metabolic diseases
Akk has a role in the prevention and treatment of diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic dysfunctions. In
diabetes, the decreased expression of intestinal tight junction proteins leads to increased intestinal
permeability, resulting in excessive absorption of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and leading to chronic
inflammation . A clinical trial in 2016 showed that obese subjects with a higher abundance of intestinal
[51]
Akk had healthier metabolic markers such as plasma triglycerides, fasting glucose, and body fat
[52]
distribution . In 2018, Hänninen et al. found the mice lacking Akk presented a high prevalence of
autoimmune diabetes, also known as type I diabetes (T1D). Then, they transferred Akk experimentally to
the mice with T1D and found that Akk transfer promoted mucus production and increased expression of