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Japan (Grant No. JPMJMI22H1). The grantors had no role in the experiment design, collection, analysis
and interpretation of data, and writing of the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest
Manzhos, S. is a member of the Editorial Board of Journal of Materials Informatics, and Liu, Y. is a member
of the Youth Editorial Board of the same journal. Liu, Y. also served as a Guest Editor for the special issue
titled “Unlocking the AI Future of Materials Science”: Selected Papers from the International Workshop on
Data-driven Computational and Theoretical Materials Design (DCTMD). They were not involved in any
steps of the editorial processing, notably including reviewer selection, manuscript handling, or decision-
making. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

Copyright
© The Author(s) 2025.

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