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Diaz-Vallejo et al. Carbon Footprints 2026, 5, 12 Page 19 of 23

environmental and edaphic context rather than assumed undisturbed states.

Together, these results demonstrate that score-based SOC benchmarks offer a practical and scalable
framework for addressing gaps in tropical SOC assessment. By grounding interpretation in observed regional
variability, this approach supports soil health assessment programs, land-use evaluation, and monitoring
efforts in tropical regions where undisturbed reference conditions are limited. In addition, this framework
improves the interpretation of SOC data for climate adaptation and mitigation initiatives by providing a
scientifically defensible basis for comparing SOC across heterogeneous soils and land-use histories, thereby
strengthening the evidence base for management and policy decisions in tropical systems.

DECLARATIONS
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the private landowners who kindly granted permission
to access the research sites. Their cooperation and willingness to facilitate fieldwork were essential to the
successful completion of this study. We are also deeply grateful to the members of the BiogeoLab for their
consistent support, collegiality, and the collaborative environment that enriched this research. We would also
like to acknowledge that this manuscript builds in part on research conducted for the doctoral dissertation of
the first author (Díaz-Vallejo, 2023), with substantial revision, expansion, and reinterpretation for journal
publication.

Authors’ contribution
Made substantial contributions to conception and design of the study and performed data analysis and
interpretation: Diaz-Vallejo, E. J.
Performed data acquisition, and technical and material support: Vaughan, E.
Performed data acquisition, as well as provided technical and material support: Sotomayor, D.
Performed data acquisition: Matos, M.; Rios, S.; Santiago, C.
Made contributions to conception and design of the study and provided administrative, technical, and
material support: Marin-Spiotta, E.

Availability of data and materials
Data and materials are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

AI and AI-assisted tools statement
Not applicable

Financial support and sponsorship
Funding was provided by a Vilas Research Award from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the
UW-Madison Department of Geography, U.S. National Science Foundation Behavioral and Cognitive
Sciences CAREER Award #1349952 and cooperative agreement #68-7482-12-525 from the U.S. Department
of Agricultural Natural Resources Conservation Service National Soil Survey Center to EMS. Support was
also provided by an Evelyn L. Pruitt Fellowship from the Society of Women Geographers, an O.N. Allen Soil
and Environmental Microbiology Small Grant, and an Advanced Opportunity Fellowship from the
University of Wisconsin-Madison to EDV.

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.