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Table 1. Influence of probiotic and prebiotic supplementation during pregnancy and early life on GM composition and diversity in
infants
Ref. Probiotics and prebiotics Effect of probiotic and prebiotic supplementation on infant GM
[27]
Rinne et al. L. rhamnosus strain GG At six months, counts of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus/Enterococcus were greater in
breastfed infants compared to those fed formula. At twelve months, infants who were
breastfed for three months and supplemented with probiotics exhibited higher levels of IgM,
IgA, and IgG-secreting cells compared to those who received placebo
Gueimonde L. rhamnosus strain GG At five days of age, infants whose mothers were supplemented with probiotics had significantly
et al. [28] higher colonization by B. breve compared to control, but this effect did not persist at three
weeks. In addition, maternal supplementation with L. rhamnosus did not substantially enhance
the gut bifidobacterial diversity in infants at three weeks
[29]
Rinne et al. L. rhamnosus strain GG Probiotic supplementation during the early months of life did not substantially affect the long-
term composition of the gut microbiota, with bifidobacteria remaining the predominant
microbiota. At six months, the feces of the placebo group contained a higher abundance of
clostridia compared to the probiotic group. After two years of follow-up, the probiotic group
showed a lower presence of lactobacilli/enterococci and clostridia than the placebo group,
highlighting the role of clostridia as an indicator of microbiota progression in healthy infants
Grönlund B. adolescentis and B. bifidum Only infants born to allergic, atopic mothers were colonized with B. adolescentis. The
et al. [30] predominant species found in breast milk was B. longum. Allergic mothers had notably lower
levels of bifidobacteria in their breast milk compared to non-allergic mothers, and their infants
also displayed reduced bifidobacteria counts in their feces
Kukkonen Probiotic cocktail: L. rhamnosus At three and six months, infants in the probiotic group exhibited a significantly higher
[31]
et al. strain GG, L. rhamnosus strain frequency of colonization by lactobacilli and Propionibacterium. Fecal counts of total
LC705, B. breve strain Bb99 and bifidobacteria and lactobacilli were notably higher at six months. No significant differences
Propionibacterium freudenreichii were found between the groups regarding fecal bacterial colonization at two years of age.
subsp. shermanii strain JS Probiotic treatment presented a negative correlation between the occurrence of atopic
Prebiotic: GOS diseases and gut colonization by probiotics
Abrahamsson L. reuteri At five days of age, the prevalence of L. reuteri was notably higher in the probiotic group
[32]
et al. compared to the placebo group. Despite ongoing supplementation, the prevalence of the
probiotic decreased over time in the infants
Niers et al. [33] A mixture of probiotic bacteria The administration of the probiotic bacterial cocktail demonstrated a preventive effect on
(B. bifidum, B. animalis subsp. eczema incidence in high-risk children, with this effect lasting throughout the first two years of
lactis, and L. lactis) Akkermansia muciniphila
life. The intervention group showed significantly higher colonization rates and greater numbers
of L. lactis
Grönlund Combination 1: L. rhamnosus + Bifidobacterium genus levels at one month and B. longum levels at six months were correlated
[34]
et al. B. longum between mothers and their infants. By six months, the probiotic intervention significantly
Combination 2: influenced the mother-infant relationship in fecal bifidobacterial counts, although no notable
Lacticaseibacillus paracasei + B. effects were observed on colonization frequencies, diversity, and similarity indices. Maternal
longum colonization with B. bifidum had the most consistent impact on the infant’s bifidobacterial
microbiota
Grześkowiak Combination 1: L. rhamnosus At the genus level, Bifidobacterium counts varied significantly across the study groups, with the
et al. [35] strain LPR + B. longum strain lowest counts observed in the combination 1 group compared to the placebo. However, the
BL999 relative abundance of Bifidobacterium did not show significant differences between the groups.
Combination 2: L. paracasei Infants whose mothers received combination 1 probiotics exhibited a notable difference in the
strain ST11 + B. longum strain relative abundance of the Lactobacillus-Enterococcus group compared to the placebo group. No
BL999 other significant differences were observed between the probiotic and placebo groups in the
relative abundance of key bacterial groups, including Prevotella, Clostridium histolyticum, and
[36]
Ismail et al. L. rhamnosus strain GG Prenatal supplementation with L. rhamnosus did not significantly influence the fecal microbial
diversity in infants at seven days of age
[37]
Pärtty et al. Probiotic: L. rhamnosus strain The placebo group exhibited a higher percentage of Clostridium histolyticum in their stools
GG. compared to the probiotic group. Additionally, the ratio of Lactobacillus-Lactococcus-
Prebiotics: Mixture of GOS and Enterococcus to the total bacterial count was greater in excessive criers than in contented
polydextrose infants at one month of age. The species composition of Bifidobacterium also varied between
the groups, with B. longum subsp. infantis being less abundant in the stools of excessive criers
compared to contented infants
Enomoto B. longum strain BB536 and B. At four months of age, infants in the probiotic group showed a significantly higher relative
[38]
et al. breve strain M-16 V abundance of members of the phylum Bacteroidota compared to the control. No significant
differences were obtained in stool samples collected at ten months of age
[39]
Bisanz et al. L. rhamnosus strain GR-1 Infants between 10 and 25 days of age whose mothers were supplemented with probiotics
exhibited a threefold increase in the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and a reduction in
Enterobacteriaceae compared to the control group
[40]
Rutten et al. B. bifidum, B. animalis subsp. During the supplementation period, the probiotic group showed a higher abundance and
lactis and L. lactis prevalence of probiotic species, but this difference diminished once supplementation ceased.
At one month of age, bifidobacteria were significantly more abundant in the probiotic group,
while L. lactis was significantly higher at both two weeks and one month. L. lactis was not
detected in the placebo group during the intervention and was significantly more abundant at
two years in the probiotic group