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Kok et al. Microbiome Res Rep 2023;2:30 Microbiome Research
DOI: 10.20517/mrr.2023.16
Reports

Original Article Open Access

Paenibacillus larvae and their phages; a community
science approach to discovery and initial testing of

prophylactic phage cocktails against American
Foulbrood in New Zealand

3
2
Danielle N. Kok 1,2 , Diana Zhou , Philippos K. Tsourkas , Heather L. Hendrickson 1,2
1
School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand.
2
School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
3
Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
WI 53792, USA.
Correspondence to: Dr. Heather L. Hendrickson, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Julius von Haast
Building, Forestry Rd, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: Heather.Hendrickson@canterbury.ac.nz
How to cite this article: Kok DN, Zhou D, Tsourkas PK, Hendrickson HL. Paenibacillus larvae and their phages; a community
science approach to discovery and initial testing of prophylactic phage cocktails against American Foulbrood in New Zealand.
Microbiome Res Rep 2023;2:30. https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/mrr.2023.16

Received: 16 Mar 2023 First Decision: 9 May 2023 Revised: 5 Jun 2023 Accepted: 15 Jul 2023 Published: 1 Aug 2023
Academic Editor: Douwe van Sinderen Copy Editor: Dong-Li Li Production Editor: Dong-Li Li

Abstract
Background: American foulbrood (AFB) is a devastating disease of the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and is
found throughout the world. AFB is caused by the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae (P. larvae). Treatment with
antibiotics is strictly forbidden in many regions, including New Zealand. Safe and natural prophylactic solutions to
protect honey bees from AFB are needed. Bacteriophages are a well-studied alternative to antibiotics and have
been shown to be effective against P. larvae in other countries.

Methods: We employed a community science approach to obtaining samples from around New Zealand to
discover novel bacteriophages. Standard isolation approaches were employed for both bacteria and
bacteriophages. Host range testing was performed by agar overlay spot tests, and cocktail formulation and in vitro
testing were performed in 96-well plate assays, followed by sub-sampling and CFU visualization on agar plates.

Results: Herein, we describe the discovery and isolation of eight P. larvae bacterial isolates and 26 P. larvae
bacteriophages that are novel and native to New Zealand. The phage genomes were sequenced and annotated, and

© The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, for any purpose, even commercially, as
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