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cytokines involved in chronic inflammation and tumor and body weight gain in these groups may be due to the
[53]
development via the nuclear factor kappa B pathway. presence of simmondsin residue which was reported to
Moreover, the increase of NO and MDA and the decreased induce food restriction and growth retardation. [36,67,68]
level of SOD and TAC in rats fed with FB suggested Treatment with jojoba seed extract to rats fed FB -
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that FB administration enhanced the generation of contaminated diet improved food consumption and body
1
free radicals which directly led to free radical-mediated weight gain which may be due to the withdrawal of the
toxicity. [8,9,54,55] The generation of free radicals is one of effect of simmondsin. Similar growth retardation was
[69]
the main manifestations of oxidative damage and has observed in male rats fed defatted jojoba meal which,
been found to play an important role in the toxicity and therefore, concluded that the growth retardation seen
carcinogenesis induced by many carcinogens. [56,57] In this with defatted jojoba meal was due to its simmondsin
respect, Hassan et al. reported that liver damage was activity through its role in food intake reduction. [70]
[58]
directly related to free radical mediated toxicity which
was known to attack the highly unsaturated fatty acids The results of this study also revealed that treatment
of the cell membrane and considered a key process in with jojoba seed extract at both low and high doses did
many pathological events induced by oxidative stress not affect the activity of ALS, AST, triglycerides level, or
[59]
Another mechanism of FB -induced injury was suggested serum cytokines suggesting that the treatment did not
1
[60]
by Pinelli et al. who stated that FB -induced a down- cause liver toxicity. However, jojoba seed extract induced
1
[70]
regulation of cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 activity a slight increase in NO. According to Kampf et al.,
and arachidonic acid metabolism by a mechanism jojoba contains a natural antioxidant postulated to be
[71]
involving prostaglandin production, cyclic adenosine an allylic derivative of hydroxytoluene. Van Boven et al.
monophosphate synthesis, and protein kinase activation, isolated eight glucoside compounds from jojoba seeds
[40]
as well as global DNA hypomethylation and histone and Bouali et al. reported that jojoba is rich in phytic
demethylation that causes chromatin instability and may acid and omega-3 fatty acid. Phytic acid is well known
lead to liver tumorigenesis. [61] to have anti-radical effects by chelating iron required for
the MPP-enhanced •OH generation via the Fenton-type
The histological findings of the liver strongly confirmed reaction. [72,73] Phytic acid was also shown to have anti-
the biochemical results. We demonstrated that cancer property, and to improve serum and hepatic
[74]
jojoba seed extract had a protective role against FB - lipid levels in aged mice fed a high-cholesterol diet by
1
induced liver damage, as indicated by improvements increasing their fecal lipid content. Moreover, Pacheco et
in the histological structure of the liver tissues. Similar al. reported that phytic acid protected the membranes
[75]
histological changes in the liver tissues were reported of the Intestinal Porcine Epithelial cell line (IPEC-1) against
previously. Moreover, Abdel-Wahhab et al. and cell damage induced by the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol.
[9]
[8]
Voss et al. stated that FB specifically disrupt cellular
[61]
1
sphingolipid metabolism causing, among other things, The antioxidant activity of glucoside was reported by Mehta
[77]
increased levels of the sphingoid base sphinganine and an et al. Abdel-Wahhab et al. concluded that glucoside
[76]
increased sphinganine/sphingosine ratio. Such disruption decreased DNA damage and hepatocarcinogenesis induced
was associated with a diversity of animal diseases. These by aflatoxin B by activating the phase II enzymes GSH
1
include liver and kidney lesions in rats, liver and brain S-transferase and GSH peroxidase. These results suggest
[8]
lesions in horses, liver and lung lesions in pigs, and that glucoside is capable of counteracting FB toxicity by
[63]
[62]
1
liver lesions in chickens. FB was reported to induce suppressing cytochrome P450 mediated bioactivation
[64]
1
liver lesions in rats which consisted of one or more of of FB . Jojobenoic acid in jojoba seed extract also has
1
the following features: single cell necrosis, hepatocellular antioxidant activity and has the ability to bind metal ions,
cytoplasmic vacuolation, variation in nuclear size and representing an additional mechanism underlying their
[40]
staining properties, pyknosis, fibrosis and bile duct pharmacological effects. More importantly, jojoba seed
proliferation, mild to marked hepatocellular hyperplasia, extract itself was not toxic and did not exert any significant
mitotic figures and foci of cellular alteration were found changes in the biochemical parameters tested or the
in the more severely affected livers. [9,54] histological structure of the liver.
In this study, animals treated with the ethanol extract of Previous reports showed that jojoba extract did not show
jojoba seeds at both the low and high doses did not show any toxic manifestation on the general body metabolism
an acute decrease in body weight and food intake which and the blood serum parameters were within the normal
may be due to the low levels of simmondsin due to the range. [20,21] Moreover, jojoba oil supplement resulted
ethanol extraction. [65,66] The slight decrease in food intake in a 40% reduction of blood cholesterol and altered

Hepatoma Research | Volume 2 | March 9, 2016 83